Sociology

Social Change Defined Not rated yet
Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms. By “significant” alteration, sociologists …

Relationships in Middle Adulthood Not rated yet
Parents Most middle adults characterize the relationship with their parents as affectionate. Indeed a strong bond often exists between related …

Social and Personality Growth: Age 7–11 Not rated yet
Erikson's primary developmental task of middle childhood is to attain industry, or the feeling of social competence. Competition (for example, athletics …

Social Movements Not rated yet
While technology, population, environment factors, and racial inequality can prompt social change, only when members of a society organize into social …

Resisting Social Change Not rated yet
Some people resist social change. In the midst of continual technological breakthroughs, some people harbor vested interests (financial or otherwise) …

Environmentalism and Social Change Not rated yet
The vast majority of Americans consider themselves “environmentally friendly.” Furthermore, estimates show that some 14 million people in the United States …

Technology and Social Change Not rated yet
Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the making of tools to solve specific problems. Technological advances such as automobiles, …

Models of Social Change Not rated yet
In their search to explain social change, sociologists sometimes examine historical data to better understand current changes and movements. They also …

The Role and Influence of Mass Media Not rated yet
Mass media is communication—whether written, broadcast, or spoken—that reaches a large audience. This includes television, radio, advertising, …

Oversimplification and Stereotyping Not rated yet
All forms of mass media face tight restrictions on time and space. Newspapers and magazines have limits on column inches, while prime‐time shows and news …

Violence and Pornography in the Media Not rated yet
Most controversial of all topics in mass media is its role in violence and pornography through proliferation of programming with violent themes and action …

Creating News and Culture Not rated yet
Much of the sociological perspective about how news is created comes from researchers with the culturalist theory perspective. Journalists themselves …

Urbanization and Its Historical Stages Not rated yet
By the early 1900s both Great Britain and the United States had become predominantly urbanized nations; since that time, urbanization has been occurring …

Population and Demographic Variables Not rated yet
Population control: The importance of family planning Historically, many groups and societies have discouraged contraception (the prevention …

Population and Demographic Variables Not rated yet
Humans throughout history have generally favored large families—for the most part to assure survival of a particular family line or racial group. High …

Sociological Perspective on Health Not rated yet
Most common drugs: Alcohol and nicotine The most commonly abused drugs in the United States are alcohol and nicotine. According to the statistical …

Sociological Perspective on Health Not rated yet
Health is a state of complete well‐being: physical, mental, and emotional. This definition emphasizes the importance of being more than disease …

Euthanasia: The Right to Die? Not rated yet
While health and medicine usually look at improving and extending life, increasingly medical professionals and society are being forced to ask how far …

Access to Health Care Not rated yet
Discussion of fee‐for‐service or HMOs generally applies to middle‐class employed persons. But what about the working poor, the unemployed, or the disabled? …

Managed Care as a Means of Cost Control Not rated yet
With health‐care costs increasing, health insurance providers are looking for ways to reduce costs. Traditionally, patients paid for most medical care …

Health Care: Costs and Inequality Not rated yet
No one denies that modern health care is expensive, but what factors contribute to the rising cost? Of course, continually advancing technology provides …

Medical Establishment and Professions Not rated yet
Over the last 150 years, professionalism and delivery of health care have changed dramatically. Prior to the beginning of the 20th century, the sick could …

Totemism and Animism Not rated yet
Totemism and animism are religious forms common to smaller societies. A totem is any species of plants or animals thought to possess supernatural …

Religious Fundamentalism Not rated yet
One particularly notable feature of religion in the Unites Sates has been the appearance of fundamentalist religious groups. Fundamentalism refers …

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Introduction to Religion Not rated yet
The variety and number of religious organizations and beliefs around the world is so large that sociologists have a difficult time arriving at a single …

Social Correlates of Religion Not rated yet
Religious persuasion seems to relate to political persuasion. Jews and Catholics are more likely to be Democrats than are Protestants. Likewise, Jews …

Types of Religious Organizations Not rated yet
All religious organizations involve communities of believers. However, these communities come in different forms. The most basic of these today are religious …

Sociological Theories of Religion Not rated yet
The ideas of three early sociological theorists continue to strongly influence the sociology of religion: Durkheim, Weber, and Marx. Even though none …

Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism Not rated yet
The four major religions of the Far East are Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Hinduism Hinduism, a polytheistic religion and …

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Not rated yet
As societies become larger and more complex, its people become more likely to join monotheistic religions. The three most influential monotheistic religions …

Starting a Family in Early Adulthood Not rated yet
As young adults enter the culminating phase of early adulthood (33–45), they enter the settling down (33–40) stage. By this time, they have established …

Relationships in Early Adulthood Not rated yet
Love, intimacy, and adult relationships go hand‐in‐hand. Psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed that love consists of three components: passion, decision/commitment, …

Early Adulthood: Age 17–45 Not rated yet
An important aspect of achieving intimacy with another person is first being able to separate from the family of origin, or family of procreation. Most …

Adult Development Not rated yet
Adulthood is primarily a time of determining lifestyles and developing relationships. Among other things, most adults eventually leave their parents' …

Homosexual and Bisexual Relationships Not rated yet
Some couples do not fit into traditional models of marriage and family.Relationships in Middle Adulthood A person who is attracted to members of the opposite …

Relationships in Older Adulthood Not rated yet
Given increases in longevity, today's older adults face the possibility of acquiring and maintaining relationships far longer than during any other time …

Relationships in Middle Adulthood Not rated yet
By middle age, more than 90 percent of adults have married at least once. Married people often describe their marital satisfaction in terms of a “U‐curve.” …

Universal Education: Growth and Function Not rated yet
Education generally refers to a social institution responsible for providing knowledge, skills, values, and norms. Universal education in the …

Current Issues in Education Not rated yet
A number of issues and controversies now face educators and communities. Among them are discipline and security; race, ethnicity, and equality; mainstreaming; …

Global Perspective on Education Not rated yet
Increasing global commerce and competition provides much of the fuel that drives the call for education reform. Many more nations are industrializing …

Reform of Education Not rated yet
In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education issued a scathing review of American education titled “A Nation at Risk.” Although the Commission …

Theories of Education Not rated yet
The symbolic interactionist theory Symbolic interactionists limit their analysis of education to what they directly observe happening in the …

Theories of Education Not rated yet
Historically, American education served both political and economic needs, which dictated the function of education. Today, sociologists and educators …

Predominant Economic Systems Not rated yet
The two predominant economic systems today are capitalism and socialism. Between these two opposite extremes lies a continuum of variations on the models. …

Historical Overview of Economics Not rated yet
Humans first relied upon hunting and gathering to survive. Social systems of subsistence depended upon the family or small groups for food and did not …

Economy Defined Not rated yet
The economy is a social system that produces, distributes, and consumes goods and services in a society. Three sectors make up an economy: primary, secondary, …

Politics in the United States Not rated yet
The election of public officials and the balance of power between the three branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial) carry out democracy …

Politics and Major Political Structure Not rated yet
Politics is the social structure and methods used to manage a government or state. Just as varying types of economic theories and systems exist, …

Labor Unions Not rated yet
In the face of large corporations, individual workers have typically felt alienated and vulnerable. While corporations may not hear the individual, laborers …

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Modern Corporations and Multinationals Not rated yet
A corporation is a business that is legally independent from its members. Corporations may incur or pay debt, negotiate contracts, sue and be sued. …

Social Stratification and Homosexuality Not rated yet
Gays and lesbians, especially in the last 20 years, have actively sought to end what they perceive as prejudice and discrimination against them based on …

Social Stratification and Gender Not rated yet
Throughout most of recorded history and around the globe, women have taken a “back seat” to men. Generally speaking, men have had, and continue to have, …

Gender Stereotypes Not rated yet
Gender stereotypes are simplistic generalizations about the gender attributes, differences, and roles of individuals and/or groups. Stereotypes …

Gender Roles Not rated yet
Gender roles are cultural and personal. They determine how males and females should think, speak, dress, and interact within the context of society. …

Gender Identity Not rated yet
Sociologists are particularly interested in gender identity and how (or if) it determines gender roles. Gender identity appears to form very early in …

Definitions Not rated yet
According to traditional American norms, males and females of every age are supposed to play out their respective culturally defined masculine and feminine …

Prevalence of Homosexuality, Bisexuality Not rated yet
Because many people are hesitant to answer sexual surveys, obtaining exact percentages on the prevalence of homosexuality is difficult. Further complicating …

Gender and Homosexuality Not rated yet
Related to the topic gender is sexual orientation, or a person's sexual, romantic, affectionate, and emotional attraction to members of the same sex, the …

Sexism in Politics Not rated yet
With female voters outnumbering male voters (more than 50 percent of voters are women), one might think that women could easily take over in political …

Sexism in the Workplace Not rated yet
Sexism in education is clearly associated with sexism in the workplace. When women are expected to “stay in the home,” they are unable to access the necessary …

Sexism in Higher Education Not rated yet
Only in recent years have women been able to take advantage of opportunities to receive higher education, that is, to earn a college or university degree. …

Race and Ethnicity Defined Not rated yet
The term race refers to groups of people who have differences and similarities in biological traits deemed by society to be socially significant, meaning …

Asian Americans Not rated yet
About 5 million Americans are of Asian heritage, the majority being Chinese, Japanese, and Filipino. Other Asian Americans include people from Korea, …

Sexism in Higher Education Not rated yet
Only in recent years have women been able to take advantage of opportunities to receive higher education, that is, to earn a college or university degree. …

Race and Ethnicity Defined Not rated yet
The term race refers to groups of people who have differences and similarities in biological traits deemed by society to be socially significant, …

Asian Americans Not rated yet
About 5 million Americans are of Asian heritage, the majority being Chinese, Japanese, and Filipino. Other Asian Americans include people from Korea, …

Hispanic Americans Not rated yet
The modern United States includes those areas annexed in 1848 as a result of the American war with Mexico. The descendants of those Mexican people, as …

African Americans Not rated yet
Perhaps more than that of any other minority, the history of African Americans in this country has been a long and complex story. During the slave trade …

Native Americans Not rated yet
]Native Americans, or “American Indians,” ] settled in North America long before any Europeans arrived. Yet they have now lived as foreigners and forgotten …

Prejudice and Discrimination Not rated yet
Prejudice and discrimination have been prevalent throughout human history. Prejudice has to do with the inflexible and irrational attitudes and opinions …

Minorities Not rated yet
Racial and ethnic groups whose members are especially disadvantaged in a given society may be referred to as minorities. This term has more to do with …

What Divides Us: Stratification Not rated yet
Social stratification refers to the unequal distribution around the world of the three Ps: property, power, and prestige. This stratification forms …

Causes and Effects of Poverty Not rated yet
Any discussion of social class and mobility would be incomplete without a discussion of poverty, which is defined as the lack of the minimum food and shelter …

Social Mobility Not rated yet
When studying social classes, the question naturally arises: Is it possible for people to move within a society's stratification system? In other words, …

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Types of Social Classes of People Not rated yet
Social class refers to a group of people with similar levels of wealth, influence, and status. Sociologists typically use three methods to determine …

Theories of Deviance Not rated yet
Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient severity to warrant disapproval from the majority of society. …

The Criminal Justice System Not rated yet
Becoming a crime statistic is probably the greatest fear among Americans. To deal with crime and deter criminals, American society makes use of formal …

Crimes against Property Not rated yet
Of the almost 1.5 million Americans under some form of correctional supervision, most are there for offenses against someone else's property. In other …

Crimes against People Not rated yet
The category of crimes against people includes such crimes as murder, rape, assault, child abuse, and sexual harassment. Violent crimes reported to the …

Defining Crime Not rated yet
Any discussion of deviance remains incomplete without a discussion of crime, which is any act that violates written criminal law. Society sees most crimes, …

Social Organizations Not rated yet
Secondary groups are diverse. Some are large and permanent; others are small and temporary. Some are simple; others are complex. Some have written rules; …

Social Groups Not rated yet
Social groups and organizations comprise a basic part of virtually every arena of modern life. Thus, in the last 50 years or so, sociologists have taken …

Pros and Cons of Bureaucracy Not rated yet
Even though many Americans dislike bureaucracy, this organizational model prevails today. Whether or not they wish to admit it, most Americans either …

Organizational Models Not rated yet
Like groups in general, formal organizations are everywhere. Thus, sociologists have been quite interested in studying how organizations work. To learn …

Social and Personality Growth: Age 12–19 Not rated yet
Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. Social scientists have traditionally viewed adolescence as a time of psychosocial …

“Unsocialized” Children Not rated yet
Socialization is the process whereby infants and children develop into social beings. Among other things, children develop a sense of self, memory, …

Social and Personality Growth: Age 3–6 Not rated yet
During early childhood, children gain some sense of being separate and independent from their parents. According to Erikson, the task of preschoolers …

Social and Personality Growth: Age 0–2 Not rated yet
During infancy and toddlerhood, children easily attach to others. They normally form their initial primary relationship with their parents and other family …

Cognitive Development: Age 12–19 Not rated yet
Most adolescents reach Piaget's stage of formal operations (ages 12 and older), in which they develop new tools for manipulating information. Previously …

Cognitive Development: Age 7–11 Not rated yet
Piaget referred to the cognitive development occurring between ages 7 and 11 as the concrete operations stage. While in concrete operations, children …

Cognitive Development: Age 0–6 Not rated yet
During Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), infants and toddlers learn by doing: looking, hearing, touching, grasping, sucking. The process appears …

Piaget's Model of Cognitive Development Not rated yet
Much of modern cognitive theory, including its relationship to socialization, stems from the work of the Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget. In the 1920s …

Symbols and Language in Human Culture Not rated yet
To the human mind, symbols are cultural representations of reality. Every culture has its own set of symbols associated with different experiences and …

Material and Non‐Material Culture Not rated yet
Sociologists describe two interrelated aspects of human culture: the physical objects of the culture and the ideas associated with these objects. Material …

Culture's Roots: Biological or Societal? Not rated yet
The nature versus nurture debate continues to rage in the social sciences. When applied to human culture, proponents of the “nature” side of the debate …

Culture and Society Defined Not rated yet
Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society. Through culture, …

Types of Societies Not rated yet
Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, sociologists and anthropologists (experts who study early and tribal cultures) …

Toward a Global Culture Not rated yet
Some sociologists today predict that the world is moving closer to a global culture, void of cultural diversity. A fundamental means by which cultures …

Cultural Diversity Not rated yet
Many people mistakenly use such phrases as “American culture,” “white culture,” or “Western culture,” as if such large, common, and homogenous cultures …

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Cultural Norms Not rated yet
Norms are the agreed‐upon expectations and rules by which a culture guides the behavior of its members in any given situation. Of course, norms …

Cultural Values Not rated yet
A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. Sociologists disagree, however, on how to conceptualize values. Conflict …

Sociology as Science Not rated yet
The definition of sociology uses the phrase “scientific study.” Many people do not consider the social or soft sciences—such as sociology and psychology—to …

Evaluating Sociological Research Not rated yet
Sources of sociological research—sociology journals and books, national magazine surveys, television, and “tabloids”—vary considerably in the quality of …

Ethics in Sociological Research Not rated yet
Ethics are self‐regulatory guidelines for making decisions and defining professions. By establishing ethical codes, professional organizations …

Sociological Research: Designs, Methods Not rated yet
Sociologists use many different designs and methods to study society and social behavior. Most sociological research involves ethnography, or “field work” …

Basic Sociological Research Concepts Not rated yet
An investigator begins a research study after evolving ideas from a specific theory, which is an integrated set of statements for explaining various phenomena. …

Scientific Method for Sociology Not rated yet
An area of inquiry is a scientific discipline if its investigators use the scientific method, which is a systematic approach to researching questions and …

The Founders of Sociology Not rated yet
Each field of academic study has its own cast of characters, and sociology is no exception. Although countless individuals have contributed to sociology's …

Sociology and Common Sense Not rated yet
Many people mistakenly believe that sociology is the study of the obvious. They claim that sociology is nothing but the application of common sense. …

Deducing with Sociological Imagination Not rated yet
Sociology is the scientific study of human groups and social behavior. Sociologists focus primarily on human interactions, including how social …

An Integrated Perspective in Sociology Not rated yet
Taken alone, any of the sociological perspectives may present a single‐sided, distorted picture of society and human behavior. Although each provides …

Complementary Perspectives in Sociology Not rated yet
In addition to the three theoretical paradigms previously presented, sociologists use many different models to examine, describe, and understand society …

Three Major Perspectives in Sociology Not rated yet
Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different perspectives. From concrete interpretations to sweeping generalizations of …

Sociology in America Not rated yet
Sociology made its way from Europe to the United States by the turn of the 20th century. Like their European predecessors and counterparts, early American …